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signs or accents to prevent such problems were introduced not long before the i'jam and then got the shape they have to
this day: [Hughes,T.P.: A Dictionary of Islam London,1895 p.687.]
For an example of the old style see plate 5.
It has been suggested that the origin of fatha is alif, the origin of kasra is ya (without dots as in early books), and the
origin of damma is waw. Hamza was previously written as 2 dots. [Abbott, N.: The Rise of the North-Arabic Script and its
Koranic Development, Chicago, 1939, p. 39]
I'jam (to provide a letter with a diacritical point)
The Arabic letters, as we know them today, are made up of lines and points. The latter are called i'jam. The ancient
Arabic script did not have them, but consisted of strokes only.
The addition of diacritical points to the plain writing of strokes helped to distinguish the various letters which could be
easily mixed up.
Example: XXX XXX
Without dots this word cannot be easily recognized. With i'jam, the letters of this word can easily be distinguished.
Although the i'jam (diacritical points) were already known in pre-Islamic times, they were rarely used. The very early
copies of the Qur'anic manuscripts (and Arabic writing in general) did not have these signs. They were apparently
introduced into the Qur'anic script during the time of the fifth Umayyad Caliph, 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (66-86H/685-
705) and the governorship of Al-Hajjaj in Iraq, when more and more Muslims began to read and study the Qur'an, some
of whom did not know much of the Qur'an, and others were of non-Arab origin. It is said of the well-known tabi'l Al-Du'all
that he was the first to introduce these points into the Qur'anic text.
EARLY MANUSCRIPTS
Writing Material
Early manuscripts of the Qur'an were typically written on animal skin. We know that in the lifetime of the Prophet, parts
of the revelation were written on all kinds of materials, such as bone, animal skin, palm risps, etc. The ink was prepared
from soot.
Script
All old Qur'anic script is completely without any diacritical points or vowel signs as explained above. Also there are no
headings or separations between the sSras nor any other kind of division, nor even any formal indication of the end of a
verse. Scholars distinguish between two types of early writing:
�� Kufi, which is fairly heavy and not very dense.
�� Hijazi, which is lighter, more dense and slightly inclined towards the right.
Some believe that the Hijazi is older than the Kufi, while others say that both were in use at the same time, but that
Hijazi was the less formal style. [This is the view of N. Abbott: 'We can no longer draw a chronological demarcation line
between what are commonly termed the Kufi and the Naskhi scripts, nor can we consider the latter as a development of
the former. This ... now demands a more general recognition. Our materials show that there were two tendencies at work
simultaneously, both of them natural ones' (Abbott, op. cit., p.16)]
Some Peculiarities of the Ancient Writing
Numerous copies of the Qur'an were made after the time of the Prophet Muhammad and the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, and
the writers of these manuscripts strictly observed the autography of the 'Uthmanic Qur'an. There are, compared to the
usual Arabic spelling, some peculiarities. Here are a few of them, only concerning the letters alif, yti, WtiW, by way of
examples: [For more examples see Kamal, op. cit., pp.47-9; a list of these peculiarities has been provided by M.
Hamidullah: 'Orthographical Peculiarities in the text of the Qur'an, in: Islamic Order, 3 (4), 1981, pp.72-86.]
�� The letter alif is often written on top of a letter instead of afterit,
�� The letter ya (or alif) of the word is omitted,
�� Some words have the letter waw in place of alif,
OLD MANUSCRIPTS OF THE QUR'AN
Most of the early original Qur'an manuscripts, complete or in sizeable fragments, that are still available to us now, are not
earlier than the second century after the Hijra. The earliest copy, which was exhibited in the British Museum during the
1976 World of Islam Festival, dated from the late second century. [Lings, M. and Y. H. Safadi: The Qur'an, London, 1976,
No. 1A. See also plate 6] However, there are also a number of odd fragments of Qur'anic papyri available, which date
from the first century. [Grohmann, A.: Die Entstehung des Koran und die altesten Koran-Handschriften', in: Bustan, 1961,
pp. 33-8.]There is a copy of the Qur'an in the Egyptian National Library on parchment made from gazelle skin, which has
been dated 68 Hijra (688 A.D.), i.e. 58 years after the Prophet's death.
What happened to 'Uthman's Copies?
It is not known exactly how many copies of the Qur'an were made at the time of 'Uthman, but Suyuti [Makhdum, 1.:
Tarikh al-mushaf al-'Uthmani fi Tashqand, Tashkent 1391/1971 p. 17] says: 'The well-known ones are five'. This probably
excludes the copy that 'Uthman kept for himself. The cities of Makka, Damascus, Kufa, Basra and Madina each received a
copy. ' [GdQ, 111. 6, Note 1.]There are a number of references in the older Arabic literature on this topic which together
with latest information available may be summarised as follows:
The Damascus Manuscript
Al-Kindi (d. around 236/850) wrote in the early third century that three out of four of the copies prepared for 'Uthman
were destroyed in fire and war, while the copy sent to Damascus was still kept at his time at Malatja. [GdQ. 111, 6. Note
1.]
Ibn Batuta (779/1377) says he has seen copies or sheets from the copies of the Qur'an prepared under 'Uthman in
Granada, Marakesh, Basra and other cities. [Salih, op. cit., p.87.]
Ibn Kathir (d. 774/1372) relates that he has seen a copy of the Qur'an attributed to 'Uthman, which was brought to
Damascus in the year 518 Hijra from Tiberias (Palestine). He said it was 'very large, in beautiful clear strong writing with
strong ink, in parchment, I think, made of camel skin'. [Salih, op. cit., p.88.]
Some believe that the copy later on went to Leningrad and from there to England. After that nothing is known about it.
Others hold that this mushaf remained in the mosque of Damascus, where it was last seen before the fire in the year
1310/1892.' [Salih, op. cit., p.89; Muir, in 'The Mameluke Dynasties' also writes that this manuscript was burnt in
Damascus in 1893; see Abbott, op. cit., p.51.]
The Egyptian Manuscript
There is a copy of an old Qur'an kept in the mosque of al-Hussain in Cairo. Its script is of the old style, although Ki6, and
it is quite possible that it was copied from the Mushaf of 'Uthman. [Kamal, op. cit., p.56.]
The Madina Manuscript
Ibn Jubair (d. 614/1217) saw the manuscript in the mosque of Madina in the year 580/1184. Some say it remained in
Madlna until the Turks took it from there in 1334/1915. It has been reported that this copy was removed by the Turkish
authorities to Istanbul, from where it came to Berlin during World War I. The Treaty of Versailles, which concluded World
War I, contains the following clause:
'Article 246: Within six months from the coming into force of the present Treaty, Germany will restore to
His Majesty, King of Hedjaz, the original Koran of Caliph Othman, which was removed from Medina by
the Turkish authorities and is stated to have been presented to the ex-Emperor William II." [Israel, Fred
L. (ed.): Major Peace Treaties of Modern History, New York, Chelsea House Pub., Vol. ll, p.l418.]
The manuscript then reached Istanbul, but not Madina. [The same information about this copy was published in a Cairo
magazine in 1938 (Makhdum, op. cit., p.l9). Surprisingly the standard book Geschichre des Qorans, the third part of
which was published in Germany in 1938, i.e. well after the Treaty of Versailles, although discussing the 'Uthmanic Qur'an
and old manuscripts in detail, makes no reference whatsoever to this event. Also, the writer of the History of the Mushaf [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]

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